Review Questions:

1)     1.What is a professional ethics?

Professional ethics is a study of applied ethics that focuses on moral issues that are affected by computer professionals. They have separate kind of principles that also guides them to be professional but at the same time living on good morality. Some argues that it must be independent to an ordinary ethics since it has different situation when we compare to our moral issues because professional ethics is said to have moral obligation.

2)     2. Who is a computer professional?

A computer professional are the ones that uses computer in their specialized career. Computer professionals may be software engineers, programmers, analysts, debuggers, software designers, and even computer teachers that made use of the benefits of having computers.

3)     3.Do computer professionals have special moral responsibilities that ordinary computer users do not have? If so, what are some of those special responsibilities?

 Yes, computer professionals have special moral responsibilities that ordinary computer users do not have. When we compare computer professionals and ordinary computer users, we can see that computer professionals have the capability to build a system or software unlike users. Users are the one who will use the system we are making and deploying to them.  Some of those special responsibilities that were stated in this chapter are the opportunity to do good or cause harm, enable others to do good or cause harm, and influence others to do good or cause harm.

4)     4.Why is it useful to limit our discussions of moral issues affecting computer professionals to issues affecting software engineers and engineering teams, computer science instructors, and IT support professionals, as opposed to professionals such as lawyer and accountants who also use computers and who may work for computer corporations? 

It is useful to limit our discussions of moral issues to only software engineers and other related IT careers because in some other fields like lawyers, they have their own kind of moral issues that is different from IT moral issues. Also, lawyers and accountant are like the computer users who made use the capability of computers to help them working, when it compares to software engineers, it has different kind of concerns. Software engineers are the ones who will build the program which is different from computer users.

5)     5. How do Gotterbarn, Miller, Rogerson propose that we define the professions of software engineering? Who is included in a software engineering team?

 Gotterbarn suggests that the moral obligations of software engineering are related to safety critical system. This means that software engineers have the direct life threatening by using software they have created. The people included in a software engineering team are programmers, analysts, designers, maintenance, tester and etc.

6)     6. What are professional codes of ethics and what functions do these codes serve?

      Professional codes are designed to motivate members in an organization to behave according to moral ethics based on the functions they served. The functions do these codes serve are to inspire, educate, discipline and guide.

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7.     7. List some of the benefits of professional code of ethics? Describe some of the criticisms of these professional codes?

Some of the benefits of having professional code of ethics is for you to be guided as a professional in your specialized career. We will not have a hard time to know what are the do’s and dont’s if we are on the situation that needs to solved. Also, these code of ethics make us more knowledgeable on actions that we need to take and what others would want us to do. While, some criticisms of these professional codes is that some would say that it is incomplete because it just focuses on four areas of moral issues such as property, accuracy, accessibility, and privacy. There are more moral issues that need to focuses but the code of ethics just limited into these four areas. Also, it is said to be self-serving and vague. Even though the organization has implemented rules or policy about professional code of ethics, still it is in our last resort to follow it or not. We are blinded to the fact that it is actually self-serving. It is also said that professional code of ethics should be specific but broad so that each policy would focuses on all moral issues.

8)     8.Why does John Ladd believe that professional codes of ethics rest on a series of errors that are both intellectual and moral? Describe the arguments he uses to support his position. 

John Ladd believe that professional codes of ethics rest on a series of errors that are both intellectual and moral because of the three main points. First is that ethics is open ended which means that it has no definite answer. Our opinions are always correct based on moral ethics. Second is the confusion about the responsibilities of the professionals. Ladd suggests us to question ourselves like “what are my responsibilities as a professional?” In this second point, he concluded that the professional code of ethics cannot help us to make decisions. Last point is people have no freedom because they are commanded on what to do or what professional ethics should they follow.

9)     9. Explain Don Gotterbarn’s three-fold distinctions: codes of ethics, codes of conducts, and codes of practice. Does Gotterbarn’s distinction help us to eliminate any of the criticisms that have been raised against professional codes.  

Codes of ethics mean that aspiration because they serve as mission statements for the people to be professional. A person who does not fulfill this code of ethics will not have a corresponding punishment since this does not cause too much harm. Also, Codes of conducts mean the different personal attitudes and behaviors of people. A person who also does not perform according to codes of conduct will have corresponding warnings in the case of its action. Codes of practice mean the operational activities within a profession. This is the most serious type because a person who does not perform right practices will not have legal action. These distinctions help us to eliminate the criticism because we have seen here the corresponding action for not fulfilling codes. Also, the professional codes have been organized so that one’s person might understand it.

10)  10. How does the IEEE-CS/ACM Software Engineering Code of Ethics and Professional Practice  (SCEPP) improve on earlier professional codes?

 These SCEPP improve on earlier professional codes by having general guidance for ethical decision making that is complete. With that, they don’t faced any criticisms. Also, there is hierarchy of principles which means that a person can prioritize the important ones by having hierarchy.

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11.   11. Do computer professionals have a presumed or prima facie, obligation of loyalty to their employers? Explain. 

Yes, computer professionals have a presumed or prima facie obligation of loyalty to their employers because employees are hired for the benefit of the corporation. Thus, they should also be loyal for their employer.

12) 12. Describe the arguments by Ronald Duska and John Ladd regarding employee loyalty. 

Ronald Duska argued that the notion of loyalty should not be applied since everyone is committed to their self-interest. For him, employee has no necessary to be loyal to the corporation since they have no mutual enrichment with each other. Corporations want to imposed loyalty so that it would be for their self-interest. 

 While, John Ladd argues that loyalty will just come from employees since it will be having conflicts with the corporate’s self-interest.

13. What exactly is whistle blowing? According to Michael Martin, what are the three general approaches that have been taken in the analysis of whistle blowing cases? 

Whistle blowing means getting public’s attention. One of the example of this is having a press in order for you to be heard by the people. Instead of talking with the company, you tend to have a press and broadcast all what you want to say. According to Michael Martin, there are three general approaches. First is condemned as an action taken by disloyal troublemakers who rat on their companies and undermine teamwork based on the hierarchy of authority within the corporation. Second is regarded as a tragedy to be avoided though it may sometimes be a necessary evil. Third is affirmed unequivocally as an obligation that is paramount in certain circumstances where it overrides all other considerations, whatever the sacrifice involved in meeting it.

14)  14.Describe Richard De George’s criteria for determining when one is required to blow the whistle as opposed to when one is permitted to do so. Are De George’s criteria useful in making this distinction? Explain. 

Richard George’s believed that a worker can go to public if the condition was met. First, the harm that will be done by the product to the public is serious and considerable. Second, the engineers or employees have made their concerns known to their superiors. Third is the employees or engineers have received no satisfaction from the immediate supervisors, and they exhausted the channels available within the corporation, including going to the board of directors. Fourth is the engineers or employees have documented evidence that would convince a reasonable, impartial observer that his/her view of the situation is correct and the company policy wrong. Last is there is strong evidence that making the information public will in fact prevent the threatened serious harm.

No, De George’s criteria are not useful since it just push the employees to whistle blow. I believed that employees should be more concerned of the consequences if he did that action.

15)  15. In which ways do Gene James and Kenneth Alpern disagree with De George’s model for whistle blowing?

Alpern believe that engineers are the only ones to blow the whistle since engineers are the greater position to refrain from doing harm. For example, if his superior instructed him to make software that would certainly harm other people and making it for the company’s self-interest, then the engineers are required to blow the whistle which is different from the ordinary people.

16) 16. Describe John Ladd’s argument in defense of De George’s position on whistle blowing. 

John Ladd agrees with De George that engineers should not act as a hero. Unlike Alpern and James believed that engineers are the only ones who can whistle blow. It is undesirable from an ethical point of view because it demands that these engineers be moral heroes.

17)  17. Why does Helen Nissenbaurn believe that the notion of accountability has been systematically undermined in the computer age? How does she distinguish between accountability and responsibility?

Nissenbaurn believe that the notion of accountability has been systematically undermined in the computer age because we cannot strictly implement liability in the net. Since we can’t implement it, the blame was left out.

Accountability means liability. For example, a person is liable if he committed crime. While, responsibility means a part that is covered by the broad definition of the accountability. Thus, we can conclude that accountability is broad, whereas responsibility is more specific.

18)  18. What does Nissenbaurn mean by the problem of many hands in computing context?

The problem of many hands in computing context is the issue about accountability. Since we know that many people are joined together as a team in order to create software, thus we don’t know who are liable if the system is not working well. We will face by problem on who to count on.

19) 19. Why does Nissenbaurn believe that it is important to distinguish between moral accountability and legal liability?

Nissenbaurn believe that it is important to distinguish between moral accountability and legal liability because legal liability and moral accountability is distinct with each other. Sometimes there is liability but a person is not responsible for it. For example, a computer’s malfunctioning is the liability of the company but they don’t have moral responsibility on it.

20)  20. According to Don Gotterbarn, what is required for a model of risk analysis to be adequate in the software development process for safety critical systems?

According to Don Gotterbarn, he believed that ethical risk is associated with the entire software development process. He argues that we must consider ethical issues as a risk in developing our programs and not only the risk that we know.