CHAPTER 2

ETHICAL CONCEPTS AND ETHICAL THEORIES: ESTABLISHING AND JUSTIFYING A MORAL SYSTEM

1)      1. What is ethics, and how can it be distinguished from morality?

 

According to this chapter, Ethics can be defined as the study of morality. I consider ethics as a subset of the whole morality. Morality is also defined as a system that consists of moral rules and principles.

 

2)     2. What is meant by a moral system? What are some of the key differences between the “rules of conduct” and the “principles of evaluation” that compromise a moral system?

Moral system is a system whose purpose is to prevent harm and evils among human beings. It promotes human flourishes.  Moral system can be either the four features namely public, informal, rational and impartial.

The differences between the rules of conduct and the principles of evaluation are their different focus. Rules of conduct means the action-guiding rules, in the form of either directives or social policies. These moral rules are derived from basic moral values. While, principle of evaluation means the evaluative standards used to justify rules of conduct. The example would be the duty, obligations and etc.

3)      3. What does Bernard Gert mean when he describes morality in terms of “a public system”? Why is the notion of “personal morality” an oxymoron.

Bernard Gert mean when he describes morality in terms of a public system is that everyone should be knowledgeable of the rules, laws in the society.  The notion of personal morality contradicts with public system because in public system, each and everyone are participating. While, in personal morality, it is only consists of one person and can be considered as private.

4)      4. Why does Gert believe that morality is an “informal system”? How is a moral system both similar to, and different from a game?

 

Gert believe that morality is an informal system because there are no actual standards of doing what is right or wrong. Also, there is no one who can perfectly judge somebody’s action except God.

Moral system is said to be similar from a game in a way that the players in the game aware of the rules like the people who are aware of the consequences of their action. The difference of the moral system from a game is that the game has an authority that will judge and imposed the rules such as referees, unlike the moral system who has no judge.

 

5)      5. Describe how the ideas of “rationality” and “impartiality” function in Gert’s moral system.

 

A moral system is said to be rational in a way that the principles are based on the logical thinking that is accessible to ordinary person. The rules should be understandable and simple for the ordinary people to appreciate the principle, not only the literate people.

Also, a moral system is said to be impartial so that the system is fair to all the people. It is not designed to legitimate people, but all rational beings. There should be a structure for people to accept the system and treat it fairly.

 

6)      6. What are values, and what are some key differences between moral values and nonmoral values?

The word values derived from latin valere, which means having worth or being of worth. According to this chapter, values are objects of our desires or interests such as love, happiness and freedom. The difference between moral values and nonmoral values is that there is ethics. Moral values derived from core non moral values. The example of moral value is treating people fairly. While, the example of nonmoral value is self-interest.

7)      7. How do religion, law, and philosophy each provide different grounds for justifying a moral principle?

 

The first approach is about how the religion be the standard for justifying a moral principle. In this approach, they based the action in the Ten Commandments, passages, and bible. One example would be the act of stealing. Since we know that act of stealing is prohibited in the Ten Commandments, and then we can say that stealing is a wrong doing. There is belief that if one person stole an object, he will be punished in his next life. Since not everybody has the same religion, others suggest that there should be approach by way of civil laws.

 

The second approach is grounding moral principles in a legal system. In this approach, philosophers examine if the action violates the rules or laws of the society. Then, if it does, then the action is morally wrong. The reason why stealing is wrong because it violates the law. Violating a law is punishable in the society by way of jail and fines.

 

The third approach is grounding moral principles in a philosophical system. In this approach, the reason why stealing is wrong is not because of laws and not the religion. Stealing is said to be wrong because it is naturally wrong. Many philosophers claim that the reason why stealing is bad has sufficient reason in the act of stealing and the consequences of that act.

 

8)      8. What is the method of philosophical ethics, and what is “a philosophical study”? How is a philosophical study used in an analysis of moral issues?

 

The method of philosophical ethics is done in a normative investigation. In a normative approach, the action is also based on religion, laws and philosophy. Philosophical study means that there is a consistent methodology scheme be used to verify the action done if it is morally wrong or morally right that should satisfy rational and impartial. Philosophers confirm the action by way of its plausibility by testing it against the rules of logical argumentation. There should be a used of ethical theory to analyzed and deliberate the issue.

9)      9. How does a philosophical study differ from a descriptive study? Why are sociological and anthropological studies of morality usually descriptive rather than normative in nature?

Philosophical study is different from a descriptive study because in descriptive study, there are actually experiments that happen in a laboratory in order to arrive to the real answer. While, philosophical study does not have any physical laboratory in order to test arguments.

Sociological and anthropological studies of morality usually descriptive rather than normative in nature because they like to judge rather than adhering to the standard.

10)   10. Summarize the four different kinds of “discussion stoppers” in ethical discourse that we examined.

 

The first discussion stopper says that people disagree on solutions to moral issues. We all know that because we have different kind of beliefs, it makes us more difficult to recognized only one possible answer to a moral issue. I have seen while reading some morality issues that they have different opinions that makes it broader and larger. Experts also admit that they disagree to the correct answers to certain questions. Their debate sometimes leads us to many possible answers which is good for us to be knowledgeable and have our different opinion.

 

The second discussion stoppers exclaim that who am I to judge others? Some people does not protest or proclaim their opinion because they believed that it is inappropriate to describe different moral beliefs. Judging a certain subject does not mean that he is on the correct side. He can be wrong and he can be in the right position. We have the right to judge because we are the ones who will be affected in that certain issue.

 

The third discussion stopper says that morality is simply a private matter. I don’t think that morality is a private matter and we should not mind it. I believed that morality is a public matter and everyone should be concerned on it. Also, if we will not make morality as big deal, then I think we will have a difficulty to claim our rights. How can we say that stealing is wrong, if actually there is no agreed answer on that particular topic?

 

The fourth discussion stopper says that morality is simply a matter for individual cultures to decide. I think this has a point because every culture has different kind of belief. Other cultures have different thinking regarding of genders with other countries. The problem would be we will be having difficulty to know the right and wrong doing if we went to other countries that has a contradicting cultures compare to our country.

 

11)   11. Why are these discussion stoppers problematic for the advancement of dialogue and debate about ethical issues?

 

First, I believed that these discussion stoppers may be a big problem for the advancement of dialogue and debate about ethical issues because for example in cultures, there should be a representative in the country to hear their respective side. Since there are numerous of countries, I think it would be difficult to integrate all the people’s belief. Second, in the discussion stopper that says that morality is a private matter will be a problem because it stops the philosophers to have a certain answer for that kind of issue. Also, we will not know what is right and wrong. Thus, we can’t claim our rights if some people have conflicts with us. In addition to that, if we will not mind morality issues, it will be hard for us to make decision if the person does the action.

 

12)   12. What is moral relativism? How is it different from cultural relativism?

 

Moral relativism focuses on normative thesis because it insists that a person should not judge other cultures that are not his own. While, cultural relativism is essentially a descriptive thesis which means that every culture has ethical theory in that society. For example, the country believes that stealing is right. Then that person who lives in that country thinks that it is alright to steal without thinking that other cultures believed that it is wrong. Moral relativism is different in a way that if majority of people in that country believes that their custom is correct, then they would morally accept it.

 

13)  13. What is ethical theory, and what important functions do ethical theories play in the analysis of moral issues?

 

Ethical theory provides us criteria that we can use to avoid the problems of moral relativism. The ethical theory guides us through investigating and analyzing certain moral issues. The important functions do ethical theories play in the analysis of moral issues is it provides a framework in order for us to be coherent, consistent, comprehensive and systematic.

 

14)  14. What are the distinguishing features of consequence-based ethical theories?

 

One of the distinguishing features of consequence-based ethical theories is first the majority of people will agree on that consequence. Second feature is that all people should be happy with the outcome. Last is the consequence should be in accordance with ethical theories.

 

15)   15. Describe some of the key differences between act utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism?

 

An example of 1% who will be forced to be slaved for the benefit of the 99% of people who will be happy if that will happen is said to be good according to act utilitarianism. Act utilitarianism focuses on the great amount of people who will be happy over the people who will be sad. While, rule utilitarianism means that the people who will be sad will result to negative social consequences which is said to be not consistent with the rules of utilitarianism.

 

16)   16. Which features distinguish duty based ethical theories from alternative type of theories?

 

One of the features of duty based ethical theories is that it is grounded on the concept of duty and obligation. Immanuel Kant believes that performing our duties will sometimes lead us to being unhappy. Second feature is that human beings have different role compare to nonhuman beings. We have a duty or obligation to treat well fellow humans.

 

17)  17. Describe some of the main differences between act deontology and rule deontology?

 

The example that this chapter gave is a student who does not submit his paper on the due because his reason is that it would be for the convenience of the teacher. The rule deontology s said that it is morally wrong since we can’t make exceptions that other will also be doing. We should treat each other fairly in a way that we should submit also our paper at the same time with our other classmates.

 

While, the act deontology’s example is a person who will meet his friend in the library when suddenly he received a call that saying that his grandmother is in the hospital. In rule deontology, it is said that you should fulfill your duty such as fulfill our promise and visit our grandmother. While, act deontology means that we should weigh the most important duty and we should choose the duty that is important.

 

18)  18. What is meant by the expression “contract based” ethical theories?

 

Contract based ethical theories means that a moral system comes into being by virtue of certain contractual agreements between individuals. Based on the definition, I think contract based means being bond with everyone and fulfill your agreement.

 

19)  19. What features distinguish “character-based” or (“virtue-based”) ethical theories from alternative scheme of morality?

 

The features that distinguish “character-based”  from others is it does not believed in consequences, duties, social contracts in evaluating moral behavior. It focuses on criteria having to do with the characteristics of one’s person and how he acquired his attitude.

 

20)   20. How does James Moor’s “Just Consequentialist” theory incorporate aspects of utilitarian and deontological theories into one comprehensive framework?

 

James Moor believed that having two theories in one framework provides defensible theory. He believes that in order for us to be happy, everyone should not harm other people since everyone wants to be happy. Also, Moor supports the theory about justice, rights and duties. We should follow the laws, rules in the society. We should do our duty as a citizen of the society.